Cannabis: A Popular and Useful Plant

Botanical Name: Cannabis sativa, C. indica.

Common Names: Marijuana, Marihuana, Weed, Pot, Dope, Mary Jane, etc.

Botanical Family: Cannabaceae. The family includes about 170 species grouped in about 11 genera, including Cannabis, Humulus, and Celtis. It is of note that both Cannabis and Humulus are considered to be shamanistic plants in many cultures.

Characteristics: The leaves are palmately compound with serrate leaflets. The number of leaves on the stem increase from one pair to about ten leaflets, depending on the cultivation and variety. Growers note that grown the stems are often opposite when grown from seed but alternate when grown from clones.

Flowers: Cannabis is dioecious with male and female flowers developing on separate plants, although hermaphroditic (monoecious) specimens are found. The male (staminate) flowers hang in long, loose, clustered limbs about ½ inches long, while the females (pistillate) are tightly crowded between small leaves. The male generally flowers earlier than the female. It is theorized that the higher production of resin in the female is to attract pollinators.

Habitat: Well irrigated lands with warm weather. Cannabis sativa/indica has a worldwide distribution.

Adulteration: In 2007 James Randerson of The Guardian wrote that “a batch of cannabis adulterated with tiny glass beads..... has flooded the UK market”. In 2009, the Revue des Maladies Respiratoires reported adulteration in Europe with grit sand and/or glass beads to make the buds weigh more. They cited the effects on two people. One person was a 33 year old with acute inhilation pneumoulis from grit sand resulting in silica in the alveolar macrophages. Another had epistaxis, mouth ulcer, sore throat and cough from glass beads.

Constituents: Cannabis chemical constituents include about 100 compounds responsible for its characteristic aroma. The most widely researched at this time are Tetrahyrocannabinol (THC) , Cannabidiol (CBD), and Cannabinol (CBN). Cannabis also has volatile terpenes and sesquiterpenes, among them pinene, myrcene, linalool, limonene,terpinolene, trans-caryophyllene and humulene, all of which contribute to the characteristic aroma.

Taste: It is primarily pungent but varies greatly depending on the variety.

Odor: Often described as skunk-like, varies widely according to the terpenes in the variety.

Energetics: Cannabis is drying and warm. The Sativas are said to increase energy, the Indicas are soporific. The physiological and psychological effects of Cannabis are widely disputed, to say the least.

Cannabis

A book by E.L. Able has just been published called Marihuana: The First 1200 Years. Amusing title to be sure since Cannabis has certainly been around longer than 1200 years, but it does underscore the long relationship between Cannabis sativa and Homo sapiens. While we are accustomed to regard plants from a human-centric perspective, it is easy to overlook the fact that Cannabis has had a much longer relationship with the planet and is far older than Homo sapiens. Cannabis as a green plant, was clearly of benefit to other species before people “discovered” it. It is more important than simply as an inebriant/medicine/food for humans. It is a bit like saying the Sequoia sempervirens (Redwood) exists only to provide wood for the decks of homeowners. Despite the common sense realization that Cannabis is also a food herb, I was unable to find any references to animal ingestion of the raw plant as food other than the “pot/pet/pest” articles.

History

The oldest known written record on Cannabis use comes from the Chinese Emperor Shen Nung somewhere around 2727 B.C. The earliest European cultivation is attributed to the Scythians of Messopotamia... what my Ancient History high school teacher called the “Cradle of Civilization”. And indeed, Cannabis has been with us for a very long time. Humans have co-evolved with this plant.

It is recorded that the Scythians of Mesopotamia spread the growth and use of Cannibas sometime around 450 BC. The Scythians were horsemen who became, under the stress of attacks, nomads. Herodotus of Halicarnassus (c 480 – c 429 BC), the Greek historian, wrote in The Histories:

The Scythians, as I said, take some of this hemp-seed, and, creeping under the felt coverings, throw it upon the red-hot stones; immediately it smokes, and gives out such a vapour as no Grecian vapour-bath can exceed; the Scyths, delighted, shout for joy, and this vapour serves them instead of a water-bath; for they never by any chance wash their bodies with water. Their women make a mixture of cypress, cedar, and frankincense wood, which they pound into a paste upon a rough piece of stone, adding a little water to it. With this substance, which is of a thick consistency, they plaster their faces all over, and indeed their whole bodies. A sweet odour is thereby imparted to them, and when they take off the plaster on the day following, their skin is clean and glossy. ”

As the Scythians spread out they took Cannabis seeds with them and the plant found a home in India and neighboring countries around the equator. A new sub-species, the ancestor of Cannabis indica, with a higher resin content developed there because of the greater light and warmth.

The Cannabis genus was first classified using the modern system of taxonomic nomenclature by Carolus Linnaeus in 1753. In 1785, noted evolutionary biologist Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck published a description of a second species of Cannabis, which he named Cannabis indica Lam. Lamarck based his description of the newly named species on plant specimens collected in India. He described C. indica as having poorer fiber quality than C. sativa, but greater utility as an inebriant.

It is believed that the Spanish brought Cannabis to the Western hemisphere, specifically Peru and Chile, c. 1545. For many centuries Hemp was the primary product made from the plant. The Hemp plant is a very valuable and versatile plant. It can be used for cordage, textiles, human and animal feed, seed, paper, textiles, clothing, biodegradable plastics, construction as Hempcrete and insulation, body products, health food, and bio-fuel. The seeds have been eaten raw, ground into a meal, sprouted, made into hemp milk or prepared as tea, etc. It was considered so valuable that Hemp was even a required plant for colonists to grow in North America before 1776.

Additional Cannabis species were proposed in the 19th century but in the early 20th century, the single-species concept was still widely accepted except in the Soviet Union where Cannabis continued to be the subject of active taxonomic study. By this time the name Cannabis indica was listed in various Pharmacopoeias, and was widely used to designate Cannabis suitable for the manufacture of medicinal preparations.

In 1841 the Scottish Doctor W.B. O'Shaunghnessy, who was working in India, introduced Cannabis to Western medicine. In the following fifty years hundreds of medical papers were written on the medical benefits of Cannabis.

During the 19th century there was an upswing in the medicinal and recreational use of Cannabis in Europe and the United States. In France the Club de Hashichines, whose membership included the poet Baudelaire, was founded. In 1839 the first of many reports in the United States on the effect of Cannabis was published by the Homeopathy journal, American Provers Union.

Provers reported 'disinclination to physical labor,' 'excessive sleepiness,' 'sound sleep with melancholy dreams.' Hashish being widely recognized for its dubious moral effects, moral symptoms received special consideration, and included 'great anguish and despair,' 'tendency to blaspheme,' and 'laugh[ing] immoderately.' As always, there were some bad trips: '[he] fancies, upon opening his bedroom door, that he sees numberless diabolical imps…he thinks he will suffocate…suddenly, one of the imps begins playing on a hand-organ…' Other hazards: 'Constantly theorizing'; bloodshot eyes; 'ravenous hunger, which is not decreased by eating enormously,' 'excessive venereal appetite with frequent erections during the day.

This proved to be the final proving of Hering’s Provers’ Union. The group disbanded, with some efforts made in subsequent years to revive the project. Therapeutics, Materia Medica and Pharmacy by S. L. Potter, was published in 1919. It recommended Medical Cannabis for no less than 45 ailments.

Cannabis and Endogenous Cannabanoids

It helps to understand Cannabis as food, medicine and an inebriant by understanding the function and role of communication in our bodies, particularly the brain and nervous system. Susan A. Greenfield has written a marvelous book called The Human Brain: A Guided Tour which I highly recommend.

We are sensory beings responding to sound, sight, smell, taste, and feel through movement. We have four major brain highways: one for complex movement like swimming; one for visual and sensory information; a third for balance; and a fourth for the movement of individual limbs. These all come down the spinal cord from the brain stem through the nerves. The nerves generate electricity when proteins allow a flow into the cell membrane (the old sodium/potassium osmosis principle).

Let's refresh our understanding of Neurotransmitters and Hormones. These are chemicals that facilitate communication within the body. Specific neurotransmitters and hormones are transmitted from their creation sites to receptor cells via chemically enhanced electricity. Neurotransmitters are the chemical messengers of the nervous system and the brain. Hormones are the chemical messengers of the endocrine system and are transported by blood to target cells.

A neuron is a cell that carries messages between the brain and the rest of the body. The soma (Greek for body) is at the center of a neuron. Tiny branches called dendrites (Greek for tree) grow out of the soma. A long thin fiber, the axon, comes out of the dendrite. The neurons generate electricity and the dendrites are the receiving areas. The axons then send the electrical impulse onto the next neuron's dendrites. There is a gap, called the synaptic cleft, between neurons. The most common transmission of current is from an axon through the synaptic cleft (with the intervention of the chemical acetylcholine) to the next dendrite but that is not the only means of transmission. Transmission can be dendrite to dendrite, axon to axon, and axons can contact the cell body of the target cell. Receptor sites on the target cells lock in endogenous (e.g. created by our bodies) neurotransmitters which fit exactly. The transmitter is then cleared for a new incoming transmitter by enzymes. This electrical/chemical chain within one body is roughly the same in number as leaves in the Amazon forest prior to deforestation. While electric to electric neurotransmission is faster, electric to chemical transmission via the synapses is what we are looking at with cannabinoid receptors. It is still really fast – about 220 miles per hour.

Neurotransmitters create feelings, stimulate thought and trigger memories. They act on the brain and the whole body. Almost all stimulate the postsynaptic cell membranes. Three of the most well known neurotransmitters created in our bodies (endogenous) are dopamine, seratonin and epinephrine. Two endogenous cannabinoid receptors have been identified to date, Anadamide and 2-Arachidonoylglycerol. Anandamide (AEA) is Sanskrit for joy, bliss, and delight. The other endogenous cannabinoid is 2-Arachnidonoylglycose (2AG). Anandamide and Arachnidonoylglycose are neurotransmitters that fit exactly into their receptor sites. One very important fact has been discovered recently. Endogenous cannabinoids appear to be the only neurotransmitters that act in retrograde: they effect the presynaptic cells rather than the postsynaptic cells. That is to say that they are a retrograde inhibitor reducing the release of GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric Acid) and other neurotransmitters. Much more research is needed to determine why and how this is important.

There are three basic Cannabinoid receptors that have been discovered to date: CB1 (THC), CB2 (85 or so other cannabinoids), and the recently discovered GPR55. These different receptors are activated by different cannabinoids. A exogenous chemical similar to an endogenous neurotransmitter can be activated by an appropriate receptor site. We have, for instance, endogenous opiates, such as enkaphaline and endorphine. Morphine, an exogenous chemical, mimics these closely enough to activate their receptors. We also have benzodiazamines that mimic the GABA neurotransmitter and dock on the GABA receptor sites.

CB1 receptors occur in the brain and the Central Nervous System (CNS). CB2 receptors occur throughout the body with the highest concentration found on B lymphocytes in the immune system. GPR55 connects with the non-psychoactive form of cannabinoid acids that are found primarily in raw, fresh Cannabis that has not been heated or dried. This form does not bind to CB1 or CB2 receptors. THC (Tetrahydrocannabinol or C21H30O2) is the psychoactive form in which the THCacid (THCA) has been removed, leaving THC.

In conclusion, endogenous cannabinoids and cannabinoid receptors work in conjunction with exogenous cannabinoids and receptors. In addition to the endogenous agonist chemicals that bind to our receptors, there are also exogenous agonists from outside of our bodies. Plants have both Phytotransmitters and Phytohormones. For example, many phytoestrogens such as those found in Red Clover (Trifolium pratense) mimic the chemical structure of human endogenous estrogen. In a similar way, Phytocannabinoids mimic the function of endogenous cannabinoids though they are structurally different. Cannabinoid receptors are activated by both the endogenous cannabanoid neurotransmitters and phytocannabinoids.

Cannabis and Psychoactivity

In the mature female plant, prior to pollination, Tetrahydrocannabinol Acid (THCA) is most prevelant. This is probably as an attractant for pollination, perhaps also to protect the bud from insects. Trichomes develop on the buds as white chrystals. If the bud is heated the THCAcid falls off and becomes Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). This process is called decarboxylation and is a chemical reaction that releases carbon dioxide. THC is activated at 122F and breaks down at the very high heat of 392F. Decarboxylation also occurs during drying or curing of the bud. It is probable that sugar metabolism and terpene oxidation contribute to the decarboxylation also. While some chlorophyll is lost during the drying process, as it is with other plants, the buds remain green indicating the presence of chlorophyll.After a long time of curing, say six months, the THC itself will convert to the non-psychoactive Cannabinol (CBN) often used for sleep.

Psychoactivity depends on many factors. The most important of these is the reaction of the user. Sensitivity to Cannabis as an inebriant is very individual. The THC receptor CB1 is found primarily in the brain and central nervous system and the receptor CB2 is found in the immune system and throughout the body. Cannabidiol (CBD) does not bind well with either CB1 or CB2 receptors. CBD activates the GPR55 receptor, which regulates bone production and function, making it important for treating osteoporosis, among other things. CBD is also a reuptake inhibitor for anandamide, meaning that the feelings of euphoria from the THC last longer, as the Anandamide receptor accepts the mimicry. The CBD also modulates the THC. The cannabidiol interferes with the amount of THC your brain processes, balancing the psychotropic effect of marijuana. Over 80 other cannabinoids present in marijuana further complicates reaction. . Cannabadiol (CBD) is undergoing a lot of research to study the non-psychoactive effects of Cannabis for food and medicine. CBD is not an inebriant.

Methods of Delivery and Their Psychoactivity

Wendy Read, Director of the Cannabis Therapy Department of the California Healing Institute, has compiled the following directory of delivery.

Consumed Concentrates are the most psychoactive delivery form. THC metabolized by the liver after consumption can be more potent than smoked THC. Some common concentrates are Rick Simpson Oil (RSO, Phoenix Tears) and Hash Oil or DABs, all of which are resinous matrices from solvents. While these are being used by practitioners for cancer and other diseases they are new and research continues. They are extremely high in THC.

Cooked products also have a high THC content. The brownies from the Alice B. Toklas Cookbook, published in 1954, are most likely the longest lived and most famous recipe. All ingested Cannabis really does get people more “stoned” than if they were to smoke the plant, although it takes longer to feel the effects than smoking. The bloodstream quickly filters out the ingested THC which then goes to the liver.

Dried and consumed products are very high in THC and THC metabolites (allowing metabolism). The drying decarboxylates the Cannabis and the acid drops off. Dried products such as tinctures that are not heated are not as strong.

Smoked or vaporized concentrates are very high in THC, but not as high as any of the above.

Smoked or vaporized Cannabis plant is Psychoactive, again lower than the above.

Tinctures of raw Cannabis is not psychoactive for most.

Topical applications of any kind are not psychoactive although they can contain THC.

Fresh Cannabis leaves and buds are not psychoactive and have THCA (acid) only.

Again, the felt level of Cannabis inebriation is highly individual and dependent on the person who is using it.

Raw Fresh Cannabis As Medicine

If Cannabis is not heated or dried, it has THCA (THC acid), rather than the decarboxylated form of THC, and is presumed to be not psychoactive. Most sources say that it decarboxylates at 240 degrees Fahrenheit which is above boiling but some say 180 degrees Fahrenheit. Raw fresh Cannabis provides the greatest amount of Cannabidiol (CBD), which is not psychoactive and studies are proving it to be highly medicinal.

Raw Cannabis has become a big deal. Cannabidiol, binds to the GPR55 receptor and inhibits the action of GABA which is excitory. The newest trend at this point is hybridizing plants that contain larger amounts of Cannabidiol. Both the leaves and the buds are used. The male plant, which has less THC, is also a source of Cannabidiol.

Dr. William Courtney of Mendocino County, CA has been researching raw Cannabis for years, both here and in Luxemberg. Of special interest is his paper presented at the Twenty First Annual Symposium of the International Cannabinoid Research Society in July of 2011.

Dispenseries in Mendocino County, California sell the raw juice (frozen). There are many informative videos on Youtube. Two are of special interest; The Advantages of Raw Cannabis and Dr. William Courtney and the Dietary Benefits of Raw Cannabis Part Two

Courtney talks about why juicing raw Cannabis accesses more cannabinoids and other phyto-compounds than heated Cannabis. Consumption of non-psychoactive Cannabis is not only possible but easy, assuming there are fresh cannabis leaves and buds available or a frozen juice or tincture. Some people do report feeling “stoned” after consuming just raw leaf and bud despite the fact that no THC is present in the plant when it is tested.

Dr. Courtney and Wendy Read both offer classes and Wendy offers certification as a Cannabis Therapy Consultant. They have both done significant research on this green herb that Cannabis will continue to reveal her healing capacities as she is better researched. Currently the volume of research being done is amazing. I have before me a compilation of 700 cited studies, available on PubMed and other reputable sites. That's about 650 pages of scientifically based, mostly PubMed, links compiled by “Granny Storm Crow” from roughly 2007 on. I assume she uses the name “Granny Storm Crow” to avoid using her own so I will not search it out. By the time you read this, there will probably be over a thousand such articles.

Cannabinoids From Other Medicinal Plants

It may surprise you, as it did me, to learn that Phytocannabinoids are known to occur in several plant species other than Cannabis spp. These include Echinacea purpurea, Echinacea angustifolia, Acmella oleracea, Helichrysum ubraculigerum and Radula marginata as well as Ruta graveolans Camellia sinensis, Amorpha spp (Devil's Shoestring or Lead Plant) and Kava. At least twenty five different alkylamides are present in Echinacea and some have affinities to the CB2 receptor. Beta-caryophyllene is an essential oil found in nearly all plants (lots in carrots and other umbrels) and could be called a dietary cannabinoid. These phytocannabinoids are soluble in alcohol, bind to the CB2 receptor, and are not psychoactive. The receptors for cannabinoids are one of the most abundant in the human brain, as well as being in nearly every tissue and cell. The site Montana Biotech has a good article called Scientists Find New Source of Plant Cannibinoids Other Than Medical Marijuana.

Cannabis is also a cousin to Hops (Humulus), being two out of three members of the Cannabaceae family. The third is Celtis (Hackberry or Nettle Tree) which can be eaten but isn't often. Cannabis and Hops are both inebriants, both are also considered to be shamanistic plants, used in ceremonies throughout the world. They are also both considered to be medinal herbs.

The Role of Terpenes and Terpenoids

Aromatherapists tell us that “smell is not simply smell” . Terpenes are simply natural products derived from plants that have medicinal properties and biological activity. They are the primary constituents of essential oils. It is the terpenes in Cannabis that give the distinctive skunk-like odor and that make it possible to differentiate strains of Cannabis. There are over 120 different terpenes produced in the Cannabis trichome glands that also produce THC. Some examples are Borneol (Cinnamon and Wormwood), Caryophyllene (Cloves), Cineole/Eucalyptol (Rosemary, Eucalyptus), Limonene (citrus: orange, tangerine, lemon, and grapefruit), rosemary, juniper, peppermint), etc. Cannabinoids themselves are phenolated terpenes. Terpenes are also highly sensitive to heat. Most begin to break down at 87F and virtually all have degraded by 102F.

Cannabis: Medical Marijuana

The claims for medicinal cannabis are myriad and growing daily. Complicating factors are individual differences in tolerance and reactions, the method of delivery used and the particular strains of Cannabis used. This could, of course, be said of any medicinal herb. There are many clinical trials, most done in vitro, many on animals. However, there is increased interest and experiments throughout the world.

The psychoactive THC is an analgesic, neuroprotectant, and some research shows effectiveness as an anticarcinogenic. It counters angiogenesis in tumors, prevents mestatis and enhance apoptosis (the death of damaged cells). It is an anti-nausea and an appetite stimulant, and modulates cardiovascular and gastronintestinal functions as well as the liver.

THCA (THCacid) is not psychoactive and is anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anti-spasmodic, and anti-proliferative. It is the THCAcid that falls off during heating and drying to create the psychoactive THC. This explain why the fresh plant, tinctures and salves work so well to inhibit pain. Users report that it is not that the pain disappears, but that the attitude towards the pain changes, or as one of my clients using salve said, “it is as if it relaxes the area around the pain in the knee and I can sleep”. For some it doesn't block the pain like cayenne or other herbs but reroutes the message. Others report that it does remove the pain.Yet another action from Matthew Wood who reports that a woman whose edema caused great pain as her legs became swollen and blood serum seeped from the cracked skin. In this case the Cannabis cured the edema and thereby cured the pain.

In 1983, James A. Duke published an article on Cannabis sativa L. He describes the uses as furnishing fiber, oil, medicine, and narcotics.” He further notes, “Modern medicine uses Cannabis in glaucoma and alleviating the pains of cancer and chemotherapy”. More recently, Dr. Duke wrote in the Journal of the American Herbalist Guild that “Cannabis use may increase innate [Nerve Growth Factor] NGF” which is very important for increasing the length of the nerves. He also cites the hundreds of PubMed articles on the positive function of cannabinoids on multiple sclerosis (MS) and the Central Nervous System (CNS). He further writes, “The [Cannabinoid] CB system is emerging as a key regulator of neuronal cell fate, conferring neuroprotection”.

Turning back to the internet, we see “105 Peer-Reviewed Studies on Marijuana Medical Studies Involving Cannabis and Cannabis Extracts (1990 – 2012)” . For example:

“This [double blind] study shows that THC:CBD extract is efficacious for relief of pain in patients with advanced cancer pain not fully relieved by strong opioids." from the Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, Nov. 6, 2009. The site provides many studies on pain management as well as many illnesses including Multiple Sclerosis, Alzheimer's and Cancer as well as for PTSD. Studies were done on both humans and animals using only plant derived sources of Cannabis(Sativex).

Another study from that same source is:

"The primary analysis of change from baseline in mean pain Numerical Rating Scale (NRS) score was statistically significantly in favor of THC:CBD compared with placebo... This study shows that THC:CBD extract is efficacious for relief of pain in patients with advanced cancer pain not fully relieved by strong opioids"

This was written by Jeremy R. Johnson, MBChB, Medical Director at the Shropshire and Mid Wales Severn Hospice in 2009.

In addition, there are many cases currently of treating Epilepsy with Cannabis, particularly the high Cannabidial strains (CBD) with children. YouTube has a 45 minute CNN report “WEED: Dr Sanjay Gupta MD Report on CNN Stops Seizures” . This video also reports that decades ago Israel isolated Cannabidiol and THC and has used Cannabis medicinally for many illnesses. The government in Israel supports the research on Cannabis. There are many many more YouTube programs on the medicinal use of Cannabis.

Medicinal Marijuana is here to stay... maybe. It has been here, legally in the past. Thirty years ago it was on the edge of acceptance. At this time it is simultaneously being touted as the panacea for all ills and a Class One Narcotic. It is considered sacred by many, demonic by others. Humans have subjected Marijuana to a somewhat Kafkaesque existence of villification and reverence. The introduction to The Botany of Desire by Michael Pollen points out that It is an easily grown weed that is, forgive my Californese, very friendly and communicative.

The downside, from the perspective of the female plants, is that growers do subject the female plants, which are higher in THC, to growth enhancement of the bud and then prevent pollination by the male plants in order to maximize the THC. The buds are swelling to facilitate pollination which does not happen in Cannabis grown for human consumption. It is hard to think of another plant that is prevented from fruiting. It would be interesting to better understand the medicinal qualities of pollinated females as well as that of males.

From an herbalists perspective, Cannabis is just another plant in the medicine chest. Why is it so maligned?

“The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reports that more than 36,000 annual U.S. deaths are attributed to chronic alcohol use. The CDC does not even have a category for deaths caused by the use of marijuana.”

This is according to the Marijuana Policy Project, the largest organization working solely on marijuana policy reform in the United States. Most recently California's Lieutenant Governor Gavin Newsome, release the Blue Ribbon Commission on Marijuana Policy” in anticipation of a 2016 ballot intitiative for the state of California. This commission concerns itelf with taxation and revenue building.

The purpose of the Commission is to facilitate a comprehensive understanding of various policy questions related to the possibility of legalizing, taxing and regulating marijuana for adults in California. The Commission will also endeavor to identify the range of solutions that might be deployed to resolve those questions, address the pros and cons of various approaches, and disseminate this information to California voters, policy-makers and those likely to fund and draft a ballot initiative to tax and regulate marijuana for adults. The Blue Ribbon Commission’s work will include closely monitoring the implementation of the new tax and regulatory schemes in Colorado and Washington and examining the results of different policy decisions made in each state for the most relevant lessons.

Whole fields were sprayed with paraquat under Nixon and simply razed by Reagan. Conversely, marijuana is one of the plants that Michael Pollan cites “through trial and error, these plants have found that the best way to make copies of themselves is to induce animals – bees or people, it hardly matters, to spread their genes”. We have co-evolved with marijuana – as we have with apples, tulips, potatoes and other plants. Who grows whom? Intoxication is only part of the story, I think. It has been bred for its high THC content for decades and is now also being bred for high CBD content. Cannabis now comes in the new forms of raw, fresh, frozen, baked and dried. The vaporizor has revolutionized smoking marijuana by heating without smoke. Should seeds become an important dietary addition we could well see pollination of the females. The sophistication of processes, such as CO2 extraction are rapidly increasing, allowing for increasing levels of CBD and CBN content without the THC.

The positive effects of Cannabinoids other than THC are well documented by countless scientific studies undertaken by private citizens, companies and our government. As yet we know very little about the potential of using other medicinal herbs together with Cannabis. The future use of medicinal Cannabis is a very exciting field. Hopefully the scientific interest will supersede the financial interest.

Bibliography:
General:
Earlywine, Mitch. Understanding Marijuana. Oxford Press, NY. 2002
Booth, M. Cannabis, A History. St. Martin's Press, NY 2003
Herer, Jack: The Emperor Wears No Clothes. 1995.
Bibliography:
1. Abel, E.L. 1980. Marihuana, The First 12000 Years. Springer, NY
2. Herodotus. c. 400 BC. The Histories, Book 4, sect 4.75. Trans by Traus.
3. ProCon.org http://medicalmarijuana.procon.org/view.timeline.php?timelineID=000026
4. 1839. Provings of Cannabis Indicia, American Provers Union
Journal, King & Baird.
5. Potter, S. & Funk, E. 1917. Therapeutics. Materia Medica and
Pharmacy. Blakeston's & Son, Philadelphia.
6. Greenfield, S. 1997. The Human Brain, Basic Books, NYIbid
7. Ibid
8. Onaivi, E. et al, 2005. Endocannabinoids.CRC Press Abington,
UK
9. International Cannabinoid Research Society http://icrs.co/SYMPOSIUM.2011/ICRS2011.Final.Programme.pdf
10. Raw Cannabis Advantages with William Courtney, M.DL https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IlsBGXNxJYU
11. Granny Crow paper available from writer
12 Wallace, M M.D. Center for Medicinal Cannabis Research, UCSD Analgesic Efficacy of Smoked Cannabis
http://www.cmcr.ucsd.edu/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=157:analgesic-efficacy-of-smoked-cannabis&catid=41:research-studies&Itemid=135
13. Montana Biotech http://montanabiotech.com/2011/03/26/scientists-find-new-sources-of-plant-cannabinoids-other-than-medical-marijuana/
14. Terpenes and Terpenoids in Cannabis: http://terpenes.weebly.com/
15. Duke, J. Purdue Univ. Ctr. For Crop & Plants Product Handbook, 1983.
16. Duke, J. Neurogenesis: Nerve Growth or Regeneration withHerbs and Food Plants, Journal of the American Herbalists Guild, Vol. 11 N 2
17. ProCon 105 Peer reviewed studies on Medical Marijuana http://medicalmarijuana.procon.org/view.resource.php?resourceID=000884

18. WEED: Dr Sanjay Gupta MD Report on CNN *Stops Seizures* YOU can do it too. AT: CureYourOwnCancer.org
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vyf-ffoatHg
19. Pollan, M. 2001. The Botany of Desire. Random House, NY